Western Poison-ivy

Western poison-Ivy is a species of drier slopes, most commonly in Interior British Columbia.

Toxicodendron radicans, commonly known as poison-ivy (older synonyms are Rhus toxicodendron and Rhus radicans), is a poisonous North American plant that is well known for its production of urushiol, a clear liquid compound found within the sap of the plant that causes an itching, irritation and sometimes painful rash in most people who touch it. The plant is not a true ivy. 

The deciduous leaves of poison ivy are trifoliate with three almond-shaped leaflets. Leaf colour ranges from light green (usually the younger leaves) to dark green (mature leaves), turning bright red in fall; though other sources say leaves are reddish when expanding, turn green through maturity, then back to red, orange, or yellow in the fall. The leaflets of mature leaves are somewhat shiny. The leaflets are one to five inches long, rarely up to twelve inches. Each leaflet has a few or no teeth along its edge, and the leaf surface is smooth. Leaflet clusters are alternate on the vine, and the plant has no thorns. Vines growing on the trunk of a tree become firmly attached through numerous aerial rootlets. The vines develop adventitious roots, or the plant can spread from rhizomes or root crowns. The milky sap of poison-ivy darkens after exposure to the air.

Poison-ivy spreads either vegetatively or sexually. Poison-ivy is dioecious; flowering occurs from May to July. The yellowish- or greenish-white flowers are typically inconspicuous and are located in clusters up to 3 inches above the leaves. The berry-like fruit, a drupe, mature by August to November with a grayish-white colour. Fruits are a favourite winter food of some birds and other animals. Seeds are spread mainly by animals and remain viable after passing through the digestive tract.

Poison-ivy can be found growing in any of the following forms:

As a trailing vine that is four to ten inches tall

As a shrub up to four feet tall

As a climbing vine that grows on trees or some other support

Distribution and Habitat

Poison ivy grows throughout much of North America, including the Canadian Maritime provinces, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and all U.S. states East of the Rocky Mountains, as well as in the mountainous areas of Mexico up to around 4,900 ft. It is normally found in wooded areas, especially along edge areas where the tree line breaks and allows sunshine to filter through. It also grows in exposed rocky areas, open fields and disturbed areas.

Toxicodendron radicans may grow as a forest understory plant, although it is only somewhat shade tolerant. The plant is extremely common in suburban and exurban areas of New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and south-eastern United States.

A Similar species, poison oak, and Toxicodendron rydbergii are found in western North America. Poison ivy rarely grows at altitudes above (4,900 ft.), although the altitude limit varies in different locations The plants can grow as a shrub up to about four feet tall, as a groundcover four to ten inches high, or as a climbing vine on various supports. Older vines on substantial supports send out lateral branches that may be mistaken for tree limbs at first glance.

It grows in a wide variety of soil types, and soil pH from 6.0 (acidic) to 7.9 (moderately alkaline). It is not particularly sensitive to soil moisture, although it does not grow in desert or arid conditions. It can grow in areas subject to seasonal flooding or brackish water.

It is more common now than when Europeans first arrived in North America. A study found that poison-ivy is particularly sensitive to CO2 levels, greatly benefiting from higher CO2 in the atmosphere. Poison ivy's growth and potency has already doubled since the 1960s, and it could double again once CO2 levels reach 560 ppm. The development of real estate adjacent to wild, undeveloped land has engendered "edge effects," enabling poison ivy to form vast, lush colonies in these areas. It is listed as a noxious weed in the Canadian province of Ontario.

Outside North America, poison-ivy is also found in the temperate parts of Asia, in Japan, Taiwan, the Russian islands of Sakhalin and the Kuriles, and in parts of China.

The following four characteristics are sufficient to identify poison ivy in most situations:
 (a) clusters of three leaflets,
 (b) alternate leaf arrangement, 
(c) lack of thorns, and 
(d) each group of three leaflets grows on its own stem, which connects to the main vine.

The appearance of poison ivy can vary greatly between environments, and even within a single area. Identification by experienced people is often made difficult by leaf damage, the plant's leafless condition during winter, and unusual growth forms due to environmental or genetic factors.

Various mnemonic rhymes describe the characteristic appearance of poison ivy:

"Leaflets three; let it be" is the best known and most useful cautionary rhyme. It applies to poison oak, as well as to poison-ivy.

"Hairy vine, no friend of mine."

"Longer middle stem; stay away from them." This refers to the middle leaflet having a visibly longer stem than the two side leaflets and is a key to differentiating it from the similar-looking Rhus aromatica (fragrant sumac).

"Raggy rope, don't be a dope!" Poison ivy vines on trees have a furry "raggy" appearance. This rhyme warns tree climbers to be wary. Old, mature vines on tree trunks can be quite large and long, with the recognizable leaves obscured among the higher foliage of the tree.

"One, two, three? Don't touch me."

"Berries white, run in fright" and "Berries white, danger in sight."

"Red leaflets in the spring, it's a dangerous thing." This refers to the red appearance that new leaflets sometimes have in the spring. (Note that later, in the summer, the leaflets are green, making them more difficult to distinguish from other plants, while in autumn they can be reddish-orange.)

"Side leaflets like mittens, will itch like the dickens." This refers to the appearance of some, but not all, poison ivy leaves, where each of the two side leaflets has a small notch that makes the leaflet look like a mitten with a "thumb." (Note that this rhyme should not be misinterpreted to mean that only the side leaflets will cause itching, since actually all parts of the plant can cause itching.)

"If it's got hair, it won't be fair." This refers to the hair that can be on the stem and leaves of poison ivy.

Blisters from Contact with Poison ivy

The oozing fluids released by scratching blisters do not spread the poison. The fluid in the blisters is produced by the body and it is not urushiol itself.The appearance of a spreading rash indicates that some areas received more of the poison and reacted sooner than other areas or that contamination is still occurring from contact with objects to which the original poison was spread. 
The blisters and oozing result from blood vessels that develop gaps and leak fluid through the skin; if the skin is cooled, the vessels constrict and leak less. If poison ivy is burned and the smoke then inhaled, this rash will appear on the lining of the lungs, causing extreme pain and possibly fatal respiratory difficulty. 
If poison ivy is eaten, the mucus lining of the mouth and digestive tract can be damaged. A poison ivy rash usually develops within a week of exposure and can last anywhere from one to four weeks, depending on severity and treatment. In rare cases, poison ivy reactions may require hospitalization.

Urushiol oil can remain active for several years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin. Clothing, tools, and other objects that have been exposed to the oil should be washed to prevent further transmission.

People who are sensitive to poison ivy can also experience a similar rash from mangoes. Mangoes are in the same family (Anacardiaceae) as poison ivy; the sap of the mango tree and skin of mangoes has a chemical compound similar to urushiol. A related allergenic compound is present in the raw shells of cashews. Similar reactions have been reported occasionally from contact with the related Fragrant Sumac (Rhus aromatica) and Japanese lacquer tree. These other plants are also in the Anacardiaceae family.

Treatment of Poison ivy Rash

Immediate washing with soap and water or rubbing alcohol may help prevent a reaction. During a reaction, Calamine lotion or diphenhydramine may help mitigate symptoms. Corticosteroids, either applied to the skin or taken by mouth, may be appropriate in extreme cases.

Urushiol binds to the skin on contact, where it causes severe itching that develops into reddish coloured inflammation or non-coloured bumps, and then blistering. These lesions may be treated with Calamine lotion, Burow's solution compresses or baths to relieve discomfort though recent studies have shown some traditional medicines to be ineffective] Over-the-counter products to ease itching—or simply oatmeal baths and baking soda—are now recommended by dermatologists for the treatment of poison ivy.

 A plant based remedy cited to counter urushiol induced contact dermatitis is jewelweed. "The results of a clinical study, in which a 1:4 jewelweed preparation was compared for its effectiveness with other standard poison ivy dermatitis treatments was published in 1958 Of 115 patients treated with jewelweed, 108 responded ‘most dramatically to the topical application of this medication and were entirely relieved of their symptoms within 2 or 3 days after the institution of treatment.' It was concluded that jewelweed is an excellent substitute for ACTH and the corticosteroids in the treatment of poison ivy dermatitis. Other sources have since concluded that jewelweed is ineffective or of questionable effectiveness.

Box-elder, a harmless ornamental tree, found on many lawns and boulivards (Acer negundo), saplings have leaves that can look very similar to those of poison ivy, although the symmetry of the plant itself is very different. While box-elders often have five or seven leaflets, three leaflets are also common, especially on smaller saplings. The two can be differentiated by observing the placement of the leaves where the leaf stalk meets the main branch (where the three leaflets are attached). Poison ivy has alternate leaves, which means the three-leaflet leaves alternate along the main branch. The maple (which the box-elder is a type of) has opposite leaves; another leaf stalk directly on the opposite side is characteristic of box-elder.

Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) vines can look like poison ivy. The younger leaves can consist of three leaflets but have a few more serrations along the leaf edge, and the leaf surface is somewhat wrinkled. However, most Virginia creeper leaves have five leaflets. Virginia creeper and poison ivy very often grow together, even on the same tree. Be aware that even those who do not get an allergic reaction to poison ivy may be allergic to the oxalate crystals in Virginia creeper sap.

Western Poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) leaflets also come in threes on the end of a stem, but each leaflet is shaped somewhat like an oak leaf. Western Poison-oak grows only in the western United States and Canada, although many people will refer to poison ivy as poison-oak. This is because poison ivy will grow in either the ivy-like form or the brushy oak-like form depending on the moisture and brightness of its environment. The ivy form likes shady areas with only a little sun, tends to climb the trunks of trees, and can spread rapidly along the ground.

Poison Sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) has compound leaves with 7–15 leaflets. Poison sumac never has only three leaflets.

Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) is a non-toxic edible vine that scrambles extensively over lower vegetation or grows high into trees. Kudzu is an invasive species in the southern United States. Like poison ivy, it has three leaflets, but the leaflets are bigger than those of poison ivy and are pubescent underneath with hairy margins.

The thick vines of Riverbank Grape (Vitis riparia), with no rootlets visible, differ from the vines of poison ivy, which have so many rootlets that the stem going up a tree looks furry. Riverbank grape vines are purplish in colour, tend to hang away from their support trees, and have shreddy bark; poison ivy vines are brown, attached to their support trees, and do not have shreddy bark.

Fragrant Sumac (Rhus aromatica) has a very similar appearance to poison ivy. While both species have three leaflets, the centre leaflet of poison ivy is on a long stalk, while the centre leaflet of fragrant sumac does not have an obvious stalk. When crushed, fragrant sumac leaves have a fragrance similar to citrus while poison ivy has little or no distinct fragrance. Fragrant sumac produces flowers before the leaves in the spring, while poison ivy produces flowers after the leaves emerge. Flowers and fruits of fragrant sumac are at the end of the stem, but occur along the middle of the stem of poison ivy. Fragrant sumac fruit ripens to a deep reddish colour and is covered with tiny hairs while poison ivy fruit is smooth and ripens to a whitish colour.

Hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata) has leaves that are remarkably similar. It is, however, a much larger plant so confusion is unlikely for any but the smallest specimens. The flowers and seeds are also easily distinguished from those of poison ivy. ©Al (Alex-Alexander) D Girvan. All rights reserved.

Pacific Poison Oak

Poison oak is a deciduous shrub, which like POISON IVY IS in the SUMAC FAMILY, native to North America.

Its leaves contain a compound that causes a rash on human skin.

Poison Oak can Specifically Refer to:

Toxicodendron pubescens, which grows in Eastern North America

Toxicodendron diversilobum, which grows in Western Coast of North America

Poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) and its EASTERN COUNTERPART poison ivy (T. radicans) are two of the North American plants most painful to humans.

 Note: These species were formerly placed in the genus Rhus. Poison oak and a related, look-alike shrub, Rhus trilobata belong to the SUMAC family (Anacardiaceae).

Poison oak is widespread throughout the mountains and valleys of the western USA. It thrives in shady canyons and riparian habitats. It commonly grows as a climbing vine with aerial (adventitious) roots that adhere to the trunks of oaks and sycamores.

Rocky Mountain poison oak (Toxicodendron rydbergii) occurs in canyons throughout western Canada. Because the two species of western poison oak look like a vine as they develop, some authors list poison oak as a subspecies of eastern poison ivy.

Poison oak often grows like a climbing vine.

The cautionary rhyme "leaves of three, let it be" applies to poison oak, as well as to poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). Toxicodendron diversilobum, commonly named Pacific poison oak or western poison oak (syn. Rhus diversiloba), is in the Anacardiaceae family (the sumac family).

The woody vine or shrub is widely distributed in western North America, inhabiting conifer and mixed broadleaf forests, woodlands, grasslands, and chaparral biomes. It is known for causing itching and allergic rashes in many humans, after contact by touch or smoke inhalation.

The Pacific poison-oak Toxicodendron species is found in California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The closely related Eastern poison oak (Toxicodendron pubescens) is native to the Southeastern United States. Pacific poison-oak and Western poison-ivy (Toxicodendron rydbergii) hybridize in the Columbia River Gorge area.

Toxicodendron diversilobum is common in various habitats. It thrives in shady and dappled light through full and direct sunlight conditions, at elevations below 5,000 feet. The vine form can climb up large shrub and tree trunks into their canopies. Sometimes it kills the support plant by smothering or breaking it.

The plant often occurs in chaparral and woodlands, coastal sage scrub, grasslands, and oak woodlands; and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menzesii), Hemlock—Sitka spruce, Coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa), and mixed evergreen forests.

Description

Toxicodendron diversilobum, Pacific or western poison oak, is extremely variable in growth habit and leaf appearance. It grows as a dense one and a half to thirteen foot, tall shrub in open sunlight; also as a tree like vine ten to thirty feet high and may be more than more than one hundred feet long with a three to eight inch trunk. It reproduces by spreading rhizomes and by seeds.

Pacific Poison-oak foliage.

The plant is deciduous, so that after cold weather sets in, the stems are leafless and bear only the occasional cluster of berries. Without leaves, poison oak stems may sometimes be identified by occasional black marks where its milky sap may have oozed and dried.

The leaves are divided into three (rarely five,seven or nine) leaflets, one and one a half to four inches long, with scalloped, toothed, or lobed edges. They generally resemble the lobed leaves of a true oak, though the Pacific poison oak leaves will tend to be glossier. Leaves are typically bronze when first unfolding in February to March, bright green in the Spring, yellow-green to reddish in the Summer, and bright red or pink from late July to October.

White flowers form in the spring, from March to June. If they are fertilized, they develop into greenish-white or tan berries.

Botanist John Howell observed the toxicity of Toxicodendron diversilobum obscures its merits:

"In spring, the ivory flowers bloom on the sunny hill or in sheltered glade, in summer its fine green leaves contrast refreshingly with dried and tawny grassland, in autumn its colours flame more brilliantly than in any other native, but one great fault, its poisonous juice, nullifies its every other virtue and renders this beautiful shrub the most disparaged of all within our region”

Pacific poison oak leaves and twigs have a surface oil, urushiol, which causes an allergic reaction. It causes contact dermatitis- an immune-mediated skin inflammation- IN 4/5 OF HUMANS However, most, if not all, will become sensitized over time with repeated or more concentrated exposure to urushiol.

Pacific Poison-Oak grows on drier rocky slopes at lower elevations on south-eastern Vancouver Island and nearby Gulf Island.

Reactions:

Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis from poison oak.

Pacific poison oak skin contact first causes itching; then evolves into dermatitis with inflammation, colourless bumps, severe itching, and blistering. In the dormant deciduous seasons the plant can be difficult to recognize, however leafless branches and twigs contact also causes allergic reactions.

Contrary to what has been written by other authors and posted on other web-sites Urushiol volatilizes when burned; SO IT IS, INDEED, CARRIED THROUGH THE AIR to unsuspecting victims.

 And, human exposure to Toxicodendron diversilobum smoke is extremely hazardous, from wildfires, controlled burns, or disposal fires. The smoke can poison people who thought they were immune. The resin can persist on pets and clothing for months and is also ejected in fine droplets into the air when the plants are pulled.

Branches used to toast food over campfires can cause reactions internally and externally, although, or so it is claimed, the Karok peoples traditionally used them as a cooking tool.

Ecology: Black-tailed deer, Mule deer, ground squirrels, Western grey squirrels, and other indigenous fauna feed on the leaves of the plant. It is rich in phosphorus, calcium, and sulphur. Bird species use the berries for food, and utilize the plant structure for shelter. Native animals, horses, livestock, canine pets, DO NOT demonstrate reactions to urushiol.

Due to human allergic reactions, Pacific poison oak plants are usually eradicated in gardens and public landscaped areas. It can be a weed in agricultural fields, orchards, and vineyards. It is usually removed by pruning, herbicides, digging out, or a combination of these.

Uses:

Native North Americans used the plant's stems and shoots to make baskets, the sap to cure ringworm, and as a poultice of fresh leaves applied to rattlesnake bites. The juice or soot was used as a black dye for sedge basket elements, tattoos, and skin darkening.

An infusion of dried roots, or buds, eaten in the spring, were taken by some native peoples for an immunity from the plant poisons.

Chumash peoples used Pacific poison-oak sap to remove warts, corns, and calluses; to cauterize sores; and to stop bleeding. They also drank a decoction made from Pacific poison-oak roots to treat dysentery.
© Al (Alex-Alexander) D Girvan> All rights reserved.

Soapberry or Soapollalie (Shepherdia canadensis)

     Soapberry or Soapollalie (Shepherdia canadensis)

Soap berries can be eaten raw or cooked and were once used as a trade item.

The fruit was usually collected by beating the branches over a canvas and then rolling the berries down over a screen and into a container to separate leaves and other debris. Because their juice is rich in saponin, soapberries become foamy when beaten. The fruit can be mixed about 4:1 with water and whipped with a French {piano-wire]Whip or an electric beater(much like egg whites; like egg whites, soapberry will not foam in plastic, or greasy containers)to make a foamy dessert which since the early 18^th century is often called “Indian Ice Cream”. The resulting foam can be truly unexpected and is quite remarkable, having a white to pale pink colour and a smooth shiny consistency, similar to the best whipped meringue. This Foam is rather bitter so was usually sweetened with tree sap or if any was available, sugar.

Preserved soapberry juice, mixed with water but not whipped makes a refreshing “Indian lemonade” (like sumac).

An Interesting Fact: The lychee (Litchi chinensis) (Chinese: 荔枝; pinyin: lì zhī) is the sole member of the genus Litchi in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. It is a tropical and subtropical fruit tree native to the Guangdong and Fujian provinces of China, and now cultivated in many parts of the world. The fresh fruit has a "delicate, whitish pulp" with a floral smell and a fragrant, sweet flavour. Since this perfume-like flavour is lost in the process of canning, the fruit is usually eaten fresh

Warning: This species contains saponin, a bitter, substance that was often used as soap. It can irritate the stomach and cause diarrhoea, vomiting, and severe cramps, if consumed in a large amount.

Grows 3-6 feet high in open woods. The flowers are pale yellow, and the leaves are green on top, silvery underneath. The berries are orange-red, sweet, acid, and aromatic; they look like rose hips, and similarly, they are sweeter after the first frost.

           

             Indian Ice Cream

1. Put 1 tablespoon of soapberries into a big bowl (there mustn't be a bit of grease in it)

2. Mash berries with 2 tablespoons water and 1 tablespoon sugar or honey.

3. Beat until very thick, frothy, and almost white, adding a little more water as you beat
©Al (Alex-Alexander) D Girvan. All rights reserved.

Thimbleberries(Rubus parviflorus).

Not to be confused with Rubus spectabilis, also called SALMONBERRY, or Rubus occidentalis, also called THIMBLEBERRY.

Rubus parviflorus, commonly called thimbleberry is a species of Rubus, native to western and northern North America, and the Great Lakes region.

Distribution:

The plant is found from British Columbia, east to Ontario and south into North-western Mexico. It grows from sea level in the north, up to elevations of 8,200 ft in its southern range. The species typically grows along roadsides, railroad tracks, and in forest clearings, commonly appearing as an early part of the ecological succession in clear cut and forest fire areas.

Rubus parviflorus is a dense shrub up to 8 ft tall with canes no more than 1/2 inch in diameter, often growing in large clumps which spread through the plant's underground rhizome. Unlike most other members of the genus, it has no prickles. The leaves are palmate, up to 8 inches across, with five lobes; they are soft and fuzzy in texture.

The flowers are up to 2 1/2 inches in diameter, with five white petals and numerous pale yellow stamens. The flower of this species is among the largest of any Rubus species, making its Latin species name parviflorus ("small-flowered") a misnomer.

The plant produces an edible composite fruit around a ½ inch in diameter, which ripen to a bright red in mid to late summer. Like other raspberries it probably should not be considered a true berry, but instead an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets around a central core(unlike blackberries, however the core is not an intrical part of the fruit ; which may be carefully removed separately from the core when picked, leaving a hollow fruit which (as is the case with all raspberries) bears a resemblance to a thimble, perhaps giving this plant its common name.

Culinary Uses:

Thimble berries are one of the most delicious native berries to be found in British Columbia (there are a lot) and were highly regarded by all early Canadians. Because of its larger size, and because it tends to grow in large clusters, the fruit is easy to pick and appears on the plant as a bright red treasure among soft, maple like, leaves. The tast is very much like other raspberries, but more intense. It is often  claimed that once you have eaten thimble berry pie, jam , jelly or tarts you will never go back to its POORER cousins-the ordinary raspberries!

Actually, the fruit is rather course, and not overly juicy; but it dries and keeps fairly well.

Thimbleberry fruits are larger, flatter, and softer than raspberries, and have many small seeds. Because the fruit is so soft, it does not pack or ship well, so thimbleberries are rarely cultivated commercially. However, wild thimbleberries can be made into a jam which is sold as a local delicacy in some parts of their range. Thimbleberry jam is made by combining equal volumes of berries and sugar and boiling the mixture for two minutes before packing it into jars. The fruits can be eaten raw or dried.© Al (Alex-Alexander) D. Girvan. All rights reserved.

Sumac: More Than Just Native Lemonade

Although there is some Smooth Sumac in the interior of British Columbia, you are more likely to run into one of its close relatives Poison Ivy or Poison Oak.

Native Lemonade

Makes 81/2 cups

Enhance this lemonade by adding frozen blueberries and green mint.

3 cups dried and crumbled Smooth Sumac flower spikes

8 cups water

          Sugar to taste.

Sumac, Rhus Juice, Quallah: Good Drink

Soaking the unwashed berries in faucet-hot water(never use water from the hot water faucet, however, as it will contain harmful concentrations of lead mercury and other mineral and/or material contaminates from the boiler) releases the acid to make a drink, after being filtered twice to get rid of little, irritating hairs (through cloth then a coffee filter or the like.) The Cherokee Indians called the juice Quallah. The seeds of the sumac have tannic acid in them. Putting the berries in boiling will release the tannic acid. It can make a tea but it can quickly become too bitter to drink. To make an ade, use one to two cup of berries per quart of water. I prefer two cups and less water.  The “bobs” of berries can be cut off and dried for later use.

The Staghorn Sumac and Its Canadian Cousins:

Staghorn Sumac:

Clean berry pulp and/or seeds, when ground add a lemon-like flavour to salads or meat and is used often in Levant cuisine.  They make a purple-coloured spice, which is very handy where there are no lemons. Native Americans also mixed the leaves and berries of the smooth and staghorn sumac to extend their KINNICKINNIK OR TOBACCO MIX.

The leaves of many sumacs yield tannin and leather tanned with sumac is flexible, lightweight, and light in colour.

Oddly, dried sumac wood is fluorescent under long-wave Ultra Violet Light

The staghorn sumac is native to the southern half of Ontario and eastwards to the Maritime provinces. There are other Canadian species, such as the smooth sumac in western Canada, the fragrant sumac in the prairies through to Ontario and the shining sumac in southern Ontario. All put on a grand show in autumn of brilliant hues of orange and yellow that become deep red. The beauty of our native sumacs continues into the winter with clusters of fuzzy bright red berries.

Sumacs look edible and toxic at the same time, and with good reason: They’re in a family that has plants we eat and plants that can make you ill.

Sumac, poison ivy, Brazilian pepper, cashews, mangoes and pistachios are all related. Poison ivy, of course, is a problem. The Brazilian pepper is on the cusp of toxic/non-toxic. Some people mistakenly call the seeds “pink peppercorns” but true “pink peppercorns” come from a Madagascar relative, not the Brazilian Pepper found in the New World. Cashews have a poisonous shell. Pistachios taste good. Many people are allergic to mango. Often they will also be allergic to other plants in the family as well as sumac or the sap of the sumac.

Poison sumac (NOT Western Poison Ivy, Pacific Poison Oak) has white berries, likes to be very wet BUT is not found in Canada. There are some 250 sumac species in the genus. All the berries of the red sumacs are edible. The berries can be used to make a spice, sometimes a tea. Sumacs are found throughout the world, with many species in North America. You’ll find them across all of the United States and Canada except for the far north. Sumacs are a shrub or small tree that can reach from four to 35 feet. The leaves are arranged in a spiral and the flowers are dense spikes, an inch to four inches long, on the end of branches called terminal clusters. The fruits are technically drupes and collectively are called “bobs.”

Poison Ivy, like poison Sumac has green to white berries

Sumac species tend to be regional. However, one species, Rhus glabra,  (Roos GLAY-bra) the “smooth sumac” besides being found in Canada, is found in all contiguous 48 states.

Many of todays mixed blood First Nations peoples now claim the Indians used the shoots of the Rhus glabra in “salads” though botanists say the natives never made “salads” especially not as we know the term.

 In the northeast the staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina, synonym: Rhus hirta) predominates. It’s the largest of the sumacs and the one with the least tart berries.

Sumac turns ruby and maroon in the fall

The fruit of staghorn sumac is one of the most identifiable forming dense conical clusters of small red drupes at the terminal end of the branches

Peeled “Perfumish” Sumac Shoots:

There is another edible part to the sumac: Young shoots, peeled. First year shoots off old stumps are the best, but the spring-time tips of old branches are also edible but not as good. Look at the end of a shoot after you break it off. If you see a pith, an off-white core, it is too old. Break off that part then look again. You want a shoot stem that is all green inside. Then strip off the leaves and peel the shoot. You can eat it raw or cooked. They are very” purfume-ish” and slightly astringent.

As for other uses of the sumac some landscapers remove all but the top branches to create a “crown” effect making it somewhat resemble a small palm tree. All parts of the stag horn sumac, except the roots, can be used as both a natural dye and as a mordant. The seeds contain oil that can be made into candle wax. Even the sap of the POISONOUS WHITE SUMAC makes a black varnish.

Yes, there is one poisonous sumac but you probably won’t ever see it and it really doesn’t look like the rest of the sumacs. It resembles an alder, has white berries that grow out of leaf axils and prefers to live deep in swamps, meaning you will have to wade to find it. You should avoid it though because it is like poison ivy on steroids. It is the most toxic contact plant in North America.

So, to get that straight: The edible sumacs have red berries in cone-shaped clusters at the end of main branches. They have skinny leaves and like dry ground. The poisonous sumac has roundish leaves, pointy on the end, has white fruit that grows out from where a leaf meets the stem, and grows only in very wet places.

Now that you know about the poisonous white sumac, If you’re from the United States of The Americas, also avoid when looking for sumac the Brazilian Pepper which to the unfamiliar eye can look similar in growth pattern to the regular sumac. The edible sumac has terminal clusters of dark red, purse-shaped berries with a fine coating of fuzz (often grey.)  The leaves are skinny, lance shaped. The Brazilian Pepper has long oval leaves and clusters of bright pink/red smooth, hairless berries growing off stems. ©Al (Alex-Alexander) D. Girvan. All Rights reserved.

Indian Plumb,Osoberry (Oemleria cerasiformis)

Oemleria cerasiformis, a shrub commonly known as osoberry or Indian plum, is the sole species in genus Oemleria.

Although it is often claimed that CHOKE CHERRIES were among the most important and widely used berries by Aboriginal or indigenous Canadian tribes while  Indian plums were eaten fresh or dried by only some tribes  and then only in small quantities; it has also been SHOWN that many tribes did not distinguish between the two and referred to both the berry now commonly known  as Indian Plumb Oemleria cerasiformis and Prunus virginiana a choke cherries. The species name cerasiformis means “cherry- like” Another common name for Indian-plumb is oso-berry; oso means bear.

Native to the Pacific coast and ranges of North America, from British Columbia, Canada to California, U.S.A. it is among the first plants to leaf out and flowers early in the spring. Osoberry (Bear Berry) is an erect, loosely branched shrub reaching 15 feet) in height. Leaves are alternate, simple, deciduous; generally elliptical or oblong, 2–5 inches, light green and smooth above and paler below; margins are entire to wavy; fresh foliage smells and may taste like cucumber.

Indian plumbs are among the first plants to leaf-out in the spring. The plants are dioeciously] male and female flowers occur on different plants. The flowers are whitish-green, bell-shaped, often appear in late winter before the leaves, and are about ½ inch across. The bitter-tasting fruit occurs in ovoid drupes up to ½ inch long, orange or yellow when young but blue-black when mature; borne on a red stem. The twig is slender, green turning to reddish brown, pith chambered, and conspicuous orange lenticels. Bark is smooth, reddish brown to dark grey.

 Indigenous peoples of the Americas did include osoberry in their diets, make tea of the bark, and chew its twigs to use as a mild aesthetic and aphrodisiac.

Other than on city boulevards, I have never had much success in finding Indian plumb in any quantity. There are probably at least two reasons why. First, since only the plants that bear female flowers will fruit, that leaves out about half the possible shrubs. Second, the fruit develops early in the year, and birds quickly take advantage of the fresh fruit. Deer, coyotes, foxes, squirrels, and other rodents also eat the berries.

 ©Al (Alex-Alexander) D. Girvan. All rights reserved.

Western Mountain-Ash (Sorbus scopulina).

There are three main species: European, Sitka and Western.

The mountain-ash is not an ash tree, but leaflets (presumably individual) are thought to resemble the ash.

Common Name(s): Western Mountain-Ash, Greene's Mountain-Ash, Mountain-Ash.

Scientific Name: Sorbus scopulina.   Scopulina means "of the rocks or cliffs".

General Info: A several-stemmed deciduous shrub, 3-15 ft. tall.

Ecology:  Widespread and common at low to subalpine levels in moist forests, openings and clearings.  Generally absent from warmer, arid areas.

Range:   Western mountain-ash is native to broad areas in the southern half of Alaska, and broad areas of the Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and scattered areas in Oregon, California, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and New Mexico.

Flowers: White and small, up to 200 in flat-topped to rounded clusters.  May - early July.

Fruits: Orange to scarlet glossy berry-like pomes, which persist into winter.

Leaves:  Alternate, divided into 9-13 oblong yellow-green leaflets with sharp pointed tips.  Most of the length of a leaflet is sharply toothed.

EDIBILITY: Edible. But not great.

Notes:

Winter buds and early growth are white-hairy and sticky to the touch (as contrasted to the Sitka Mountain-Ash). 

Many birds, (notably Bohemian Waxwings), eat the berries, and elk, wapiti, and deer, browse on the twigs.

The bitter-tasting fruits of these trees are high in vitamin C and CAN be eaten raw . Usually they are cooked or dried. In British Columbia, some of the aboriginal peoples were known to have consumed Sitka mountain ash fruit and possibly the fruit of the Western Mountain ash but most pioneer Canadians considered them inedible.

 High in vitamin C, the berries of the Western Mountain ash have been used to make jams, jellies  pies, ale and a bitter sweet wine.

In  Northern Europe, the berries, which can be quite mealy, were historically dried and ground into flour, which was later fermented and used to make a strong liquor.

In Canada, the most common use was as a marinade for such meats as marmot and ground squirrel (Brunswick Stew), or as a flavouring for salmon head soup (this is a particularly nutritious and delicious--the North American Aboriginal prably learned it from eaarly Norse or Europeans-- traditional in fishing communities worldwide) soup well worth the making if your cooking char, salmon or other larger fish.

©Al (Alex-Alexander) D. Girvan. All rights reserved.

Hawthorn, Also Called Haw, or Thornapple,

Hawthorn, also called Haw, or Thornapple, can be any of a number of thorny shrubs or small trees of the genus Crataegus, in the rose family (Rosaceae), native to the North Temperate Zone.

Many species are native to North America and the fruits or haws are edible. The taste however can vary greatly depending on the species, particular tree, time of year and growing conditions. The haws are usually rather seedy, with the flavour described as a range of sweet, mealy, insipid, bitter, astringent, or even tasteless. As is usual with berries, frosts are known to increase the w=sweetness of the haws.

Historically, these berries were eaten fresh from the tree, or dried for winter use. They were often an addition to pemmican. The cooked pureed pulp (with the seeds removed) was dried and stored in cakes as berry-bread, which could be added to soup, or eaten with venison fat or marrow.

Haws are rich in pectin and if boiled with sugar can be a useful aid in getting jams and jellies to set without having to use a commercial product. Like rose hips to which they look very similar(THEY ARE IN THE ROSE FAMILY) can be steeped to make a pleasing tea or cold beverage.

The haws of English hawthorn are commonly called “Bread and Butter Berries” in the UK, likely because of the starchy and somewhat creamy texture of the fruit.

HAWTHORN FLOWERS AND FRUITS ARE FAMOUS IN HERBAL MEDICINE AS HEART TONICS THOUGH NOT ALL SPECIES ARE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE.

Description:

The hawthorn’s leaves are simple, and usually toothed or lobed. The white or pink flowers, usually in clusters, are followed by small apple like, red fruits, or more rarely by blue or black ones. Many cultivated varieties of hawthorn are now grown as ornamentals for their attractive flowers and fruits. Some species are characterized by horizontal branching, a growth habit considered to enhance their ornamental value.

Overview

Hawthorn (Crataegus species) has been used to treat heart disease as far back as the 1st century. By the early 1800s, American doctors were using it to treat circulatory disorders and respiratory illnesses. Traditionally, the berries were used to treat heart problems ranging from irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, chest pain, hardening of the arteries, and heart failure. Today, the leaves and flowers are used medicinally, and there is some research that suggests that hawthorn might be effective when used in the treatment of mild to moderate heart failure, but there has not been enough research to know how effective it may be.

Animal and laboratory studies report hawthorn contains antioxidants, including oligomeric procyandins (OPCs, also found in grapes) and quercetin. Antioxidants are substances that destroy free radicals -- compounds in the body that damage cell membranes, tamper with DNA, and even cause cell death. Free radicals occur naturally in the body and grow in number as we age. Environmental toxins (including ultraviolet light, radiation, smoking, some medicines, and air pollution) can also increase the number of these damaging particles. Free radicals are believed to contribute to the aging process (such as wrinkling), as well as the development of a number of health problems, including cancer and heart disease. Antioxidants found in hawthorn may help stop some of the damage from free radicals, especially when it comes to heart disease.

Plant Description

Hawthorn is a common thorny shrub in the rose family that grows up to 5 feet tall on hillsides and in sunny wooded areas throughout the world. Its flowers bloom in May. They grow in small white, red, or pink clusters. Small berries, called haws, sprout after the flowers. They are usually red when ripe, but they may also be black. Hawthorn leaves are shiny and grow in a variety of shapes and sizes.

What's It Made Of?

Hawthorn contains many substances that MAY benefit the heart. These antioxidant flavonoids -- including OPCs -- may help dilate blood vessels, improve blood flow, and protect the blood vessels from damage.

The berries, leaves, and flowers of the hawthorn plant have been used for medicinal purposes. Most modern preparations use the leaves and flowers, which are believed to contain more of the flavonoids than the berries.

Medicinal Uses and Indications

Hawthorn is used to help protect against heart disease and help control high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Both, animal and human studies suggest hawthorn increases coronary artery blood flow, improves circulation, and lowers blood pressure. It has also been used on the skin to treat boils and skin sores.

Heart failure

Hawthorn has been studied in people with heart failure (a condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to other organs in the body), but more studies are needed to understand how effective it may be. A number of studies conclude that hawthorn significantly improved heart function. Studies also suggest the herb can enhance a person's ability to exercise following heart failure. Participants in studies have reported that hawthorn significantly improved symptoms of the disease (such as shortness of breath and fatigue). One study found that hawthorn extract (900 mg/day) taken for 2 months was as effective as low doses of captopril (a prescription heart medication) in improving symptoms of heart failure.

A large study found that a standardized hawthorn supplement was effective in 952 patients with heart failure. The study compared conventional methods of treating heart failure (with different medications) with hawthorn alone and in addition to the drugs. After 2 years, the clinical symptoms of heart failure (palpitations, breathing problems, and fatigue) decreased significantly in the patients taking the hawthorn supplement. People taking hawthorn also took less medication for their condition.

Heart failure is a serious condition, and you should never try to self-treat with hawthorn. Ask your doctor if hawthorn is right for you.

Chest pain (Angina)

Preliminary evidence suggests hawthorn may help combat chest pain (angina), which is caused by low blood flow to the heart. In one early study, 60 people with angina were given either 180 mg/day of hawthorn berry leaf flower extract or placebo for 3 weeks. Those who received hawthorn experienced improved blood flow to the heart and were also able to exercise for longer periods of time without suffering from chest pain. However, more studies are needed to say for sure whether hawthorn is effective.

High blood pressure

Although hawthorn has not been studied specifically in people with high blood pressure, some people think its benefits in treating heart disease may carry over to treating high blood pressure (hypertension). However, so far not enough research has been done to say whether hawthorn is effective at lowering blood pressure -- and if so, by how much.

In one study, hawthorn extract was found to be effective for hypertension in people with type 2 diabetes who were also taking prescribed medicines. Participants took 1,200 mg hawthorn extract daily or placebo for 16 weeks. Those taking hawthorn had lower blood pressure than those taking the placebo.

You should talk with your doctor before taking hawthorn if you have high blood pressure.

Junipers (Juniperus communis)

Scientific classification

Kingdom:     Plantae

Division:       Pinophyta

Class:            Pinopsida

Order:            Pinales

Family:          Cupressaceae

Genus:          Juniperus

Species:        J. communis

Binomial name

Juniperus communis

Natural range:

Juniperus communis, the common juniper, is a species in the genus Juniperus, in the family Cupressaceae. It has the largest range of any woody plant, throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic south in mountains to around 30°N latitude in North America, Europe and Asia.

It is is a shrub or small coniferous evergreen tree, very variable and often a low spreading shrub, but occasionally reaching a height of thirty feet. It has needle-like leaves in whorls of three; the leaves are green, with a single white stomatal band on the inner surface. It is dioeciously, with male and female cones on separate plants, which are wind pollinated.

The seed cones are berry-like, green ripening in 18 months to purple-black with a blue waxy coating; they are spherical, ¼ to ½ inch in diameter, and usually have three (occasionally six) fused scales, each scale with a single seed. The seeds are dispersed when birds eat the cones, digesting the fleshy scales and passing the hard seeds in their droppings. The male cones are yellow, ¼ inch long, and fall soon after shedding their pollen in March–April

Uses:

Crafts-It is too small to have any general lumber usage. In Scandinavia, however, juniper wood is used for making containers for storing small quantities of dairy products such as butter and cheese, and also for making wooden butter knives. It was also frequently used for trenails in wooden shipbuilding by shipwrights for its tough properties.

In Estonia juniper wood is valued for its long lasting and pleasant aroma, very decorative natural structure of wood (growth rings) as well as good physical properties of wood due to slow growth rate of juniper and resulting dense and strong wood. Various decorative items (often eating utensils) are common in most Estonian handicraft shops and households.

According to the old tradition, on Easter Monday Kashubian (Northern Poland) boys chase girls whipping their legs gently with juniper twigs. This is to bring good fortune in love to the chased girls.

Culinary:

Its astringent blue-black seed cones, commonly known as "juniper berries", are too bitter to eat raw and are usually sold dried and used to flavour meats, sauces, and stuffings. They are generally crushed before use to release their flavour. Since juniper berries have a strong taste, they should be used sparingly. It is claimed that some Native North American aboriginal tribes cooked juniper berries into a mush and dried them in cakes for winter use. Apparently, the berries were also dried whole and then ground into a meal that was used to make mush and cakes. And in times of famine, small pieces of the inner bark or a few berries could be chewed to supress hunger. It is claimed that aboriginal peoples also  roasted juniper berries and used them as a coffee substitute and teas were occasionally made from the stems, leaves and/or berries, but these CONSOCTIONS were usually used as medicines rather than as beverages. Juniper berry tea (or SNAKE OIL)  has been used, by aboriginals, to aid digestion, stimulate appetite, relieve colic and water retention, treat diarrhoea and heart, lung and kidney problems, prevent pregnancy, stop bleeding, reduce swelling and inflammation, and to calm hyperactivety-particularly among children.

The berries were c hewed to relieve cold symptoms, settle upset stomachs and increase appetite. Oil of Juniper(made from the berries and mixed with the EVER PRESENT animal fat to a salve that would protect wounds from irritation by flies

Juniper berries are reported to stimulate urination by irritating the kidneys and will give the urine a violet like fragrance They are also said to stimulate sweating, mucous secretion, production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and contractions in the uterus and intestines. Some aboriginal studies have shown that juniper berries lower blood sugar and might be usefull in the treatment of insulin dependent diabetes. Juniper berries also have antiseptic qualities, and further studies by the National Cancer INsitute  have shown that some junipers contain antibiotic compounds that are active against tumours. And Strong juniper tea was used to sterilize needles and bandages during the Black Death in 14^th century Europe or so some aboriginal tribes claim. HOWEVER, they are generally used to enhance meat with a strong flavour, such as game, including game birds, or tongue.

The cones are used to flavour certain beers and gin (the word "gin" derives from an Old French word meaning "juniper). In Finland, juniper is used as a key ingredient in making sahti, a traditional Finnish ale. Also the Slovak alcoholic beverage Borovička and Dutch Genever are flavoured with juniper berry or its extract.

Traditional Medicine:

It is claimed that Native North Americans used juniper berries as a female contraceptive.

Dioscorides' De materia medica also lists juniper berries, when crushed and put on the penis or vagina before intercourse, as a contraceptive.   © Al (Alex-Alexander) D. Girvan. All rights reserved.